Work Shop Academic Sample           Anatomy ( Stucture of Human Body)       INTRODUCTION     Human anatomy is the science, which deals with the structure of the human body. The term, 'anatomy' is derived from a Greek word, "anatome", meaning cutting up. The term 'dissection' is a Latin equivalent of the Greek anatome. However, the two words, anatomy and dissection, are not synonymous. Dissection is a mere technique, whereas anatomy is a wide field of study.     Anatomy forms firm foundation of the whole art of medicine, and introduces the student to the greater part of medical terminology. "Anatomy is to physiology as geography os to history, i.e., it describes the theatre in which the action takes place."         SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY     Initially, anatomy was studied mainly by dissection, but the scope of modern anatomy has become very wide because it is now studied by all possible techniques which can enlarge the boundaries of the anatomical knowledge.         ANATOMY     The main subdivisions of anatomy are listed below:     Cadaveric anatomy is studied on dead bodies usually with the naked eye (macroscopic of gross anatomy). This can be done by one of the two approaches (a) In 'regional anatomy' the body is studied in parts like the upper limb, lower limb, thorax, abdomen, head and neck, and brain;(b) in 'systemic anatomy' the body is studied in systems, like the skeletal system (osteology), muscular system (myology), articulatory system (arthrology or syndesmology), vascular system (angiology), nervous system (neurology), and respiratory, digestive, urogenital and endocrine systems (splanchnology). The locomotor system includes osteology, arthrology and myology Living anatomy is studied on living human beings, by inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation, endoscopy (bronchoscopy, gastroscopy, sigmoidoscopy, cystoscopy, etc.) radiography, electromyography, etc. Embryology (developmental anatomy) is the study of the natal and postnatal development changes in an individual. The developmental history is called 'ontogeny'. The evolutionary history, on the other hand, is called 'phylogeny'. Histology (microscopic anatomy) us the study of structures with the aid of a microscope. Surface anatomy (topographic anatomy) is the study of deeper parts of the body in relation to the skin surface. It is helpful in clinical practice and surgical operations. Radiographic anatomy is the study of deeper organs by plain and contrast radiography. Comparative anatomy is the study of anatomy of the other animals to explain the changes in form, structure and function (morphology) of different parts of the human body. Physical anthropology deals with the external features measurements of different races and groups of people, and with the study of the prehistoric remains. Applied anatomy (clinical anatomy) deals with application of the anatomical knowledge to the medical and surgical practice. Experimental anatomy is the study of the factors of different and determine the form, structure and function of different parts of the body.     DESCRIPTIVE TERMS     1. Terms used for Describing the position of the Body     B (a) Anatomical position. In this position, the body is erect, the eyes look straight to the front, the upper limbs hang by the side of the trunk with the palms directed forwards, and the lower limbs are parallel with the toes pointing forwards. All structures are described presuming the body in anatomic position, although during study the body may be placed in any position. (b) Supine position. Lying down (recumbent) position with the face directed upwards (c) Prone position. Lying down (recumbent) position with the face directed downwards (d) Lithotomy position. Lying supine with the buttocks at the edge of the table, the hips and knees fully flexed, and the feet strapped in position.     2. Anatomical planes     (a) Median or midsagittal plane devides the body into right and left halves (b) Sagittal plane. Any plane parallel to the median plane (c) Coronal of frontal plane. A vertical plane at right angles to the median plane (d) Transverse plane. A plane at right angles to a vertical plane, or at right angles to the longitudinal axis of any part. (e) Horizontal plane. A plane parallel to the horizon (ground) (f) Oblique plane. Any plane other than the forementioned planes.     3. Terms of Relation Commenly used in Gross Anatomy     (a) Anterior - Towards the front. (b) Posterior - Towards the back. (c) Superior - Towards the head. (d) Inferior - Towards the feet. (e) Medial - Towards the median plane. (f) Lateral - Away from the median plane.     4. Terms of Relation commonly used in Embryology and comparative Anatomy, but sometimes in Gross anatomy     (a) Ventral - Towards the belly (like anterior) (b) Dorsal - Towards the back (like posterior). (c) Carnial of Rostral - Towards the head (likensuperior). (d) Caudal - Towards the tail.     5. Special terms for Limbs:     (a) Proximal - Nearer to the trunk. (b) Distal - Away from the trunk. (c) Radial - The outer border in the upper limb. (d) Ulnar - he innter border in the upper limb. (e) Tibial - The inner border in the lower limb (f) Fibular - The outer border in the lower limb. (g) Preaxial border - The outer border in the upper limb, and the outer border in the lower limb. (h) Postaxial border - The inner border in the upper limb, and the outer border in the lower limb. (i) Flexor surface - The anterior surface in the upper limb, and the posterior surface in the lower limb. (j) Extensor surface - The posterior surface in the upper limb, and the anterior surface in the lower limb. (k) Palmar or Volar - Pertaining to (towards) the palm of the hand. (l) Plantar - Pertaining to (towards) the sole of the foot.     6. Certain other terms     A. Terms used for hollow organs: (a) Interior or inner; (b) Exterior or outer; (c) Invagination or inward protrusion; and (d) Evagination or outward protrusion.     B. Terms used for solid organs: (a) Superficial, towards the surface; and (b) Deep, inner to the surface     C. Terms used to indicate the side: (a) Ipsilateral - of the same side; and (b) Contralateral - of the opposite side.     7. Terms used for describing muscles: (a) Origin. The end of a muscle which is relatively fixed during its contraction. (b) Insertion. The end of a muscle, which moves during its contraction.     The two terms, origin and insertion, are sometimes interchangeable, when the origin moves and the insertion is fixed.     (c) Belly. The fleshy and contractile part of a muscle. (d) Tendon. The fibrous, noncontractile and cord-like part of a muscle. (e) Aponeurosis. The flattened tendon. (f) Raphe. F fibrous band made up of interdigitating fibers of the tendons aponeuroses. Unlike a ligament, it is stretchable. Ligaments are fibrous, inelastic bands which connect two segments of a joint.         8. Terms used for describing vessels     (a) Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, with the exception of the pulmonary and umbilical arteries which carry deoxygenated blood. Arteries resemble trees because they have branches (arterioles). (b) Veins carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart, with the exception of the pulmonary and umbilical veins which carry oxygenated blood. Veins resemble rivers because they have tributaries (venules). (c) Capillaries are networks of microscopic vessels connecting arterioles to venules. (d) Anastomosis is a precapillary or postcapillary communication between the neighbouring vessels.     9. Terms used for describing Bony features     (A) Elevations: (a) linear elevation may be a line, lip, ridge, or crest. (b) sharp elevation may be a spine, styloid process, cornu (horn), or hamulus. (c) Rounded or irregular elevation may be a tubercle, tuberosity, epicondyle, malleolus, or trochanter. A ramus is a broad or process projecting from the main part or body of the bone. (d) Depressions may be a pit, impression, fovea, fossa, groove (sulcus), or notch (incisura). (e) Openings may be a foramen, canal, hiatus, or aqueduct. (f) Cavities: A large cavity within a bone is called sinus, cell or antrum. (g) Smooth articular areas may be a facet, condyle, head, capitulum, or trochlea.     Physiology ( Normal function of Human Body)         Human Physiology Cell Structure & Function Physiology - science that describes how organisms FUNCTION and survive in continually changing environments Levels of Organization: CHEMICAL LEVEL - includes all chemical substances necessary for life; together form the next higher level CELLULAR LEVEL - cells are the basic structural and functional units of the human body & there are many different types of cells (e.g., muscle, nerve, blood, and so on) TISSUE LEVEL - a tissue is a group of cells that perform a specific function and the basic types of tissues in the human body include epithelial, muscle, nervous, and connective tissues ORGAN LEVEL - an organ consists of 2 or more tissues that perform a particular function (e.g., heart, liver, stomach, and so on) SYSTEM LEVEL - an association of organs that have a common function; the major systems in the human body include digestive, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive. There are 2 types of cells that make up all living things on earth: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells, like bacteria, have no 'nucleus', while eukaryotic cells, like those of the human body, do. So, a human cell is enclosed by a cell, or plasma, membrane. Enclosed by that membrane is cytoplasm (with associated organelles) plus the nucleus. Cell, or Plasma, membrane - encloses every human cell · Structure - 2 primary building blocks include protein (about 60% of the membrane) and lipid, or fat (about 40% of the membrane). The primary lipid is called phospholipid, and molecules of phospholipid form a 'phospholipid bilayer' (two layers of phospholipid molecules). This bilayer forms because the two 'ends' of phospholipid molecules have very different characteristics: one end is polar (or hydrophilic) and one (the hydrocarbon tails below) is non-polar (or hydrophobic): · Functions include: § supporting and retaining the cytoplasm: The concentration of solutes, sugars, ions, and other substances are much higher within the cell than outside. A fundamental principle of nature, however is that solute concentrations will tend to equilibrate. In this case, causing water to flow into the cell (a process known as osmosis) and the solutes to flow out. The cell membrane prevents free flow of material and thus serves as an osmotic barrier. Being a selective barrier: The cell is separated from its environment and needs to get nutrients in and waste products out. Some molecules can cross the membrane without assistance, most cannot. Water, non-polar molecules and some small polar molecules can cross. Non-polar molecules penetrate by actually dissolving into the lipid bilayer. Most polar compounds such as amino acids, organic acids and inorganic salts are not allowed entry, but instead must be specifically transported across the membrane by proteins. Transport: § Many of the proteins in the membrane function to help carry out selective transport. These proteins typically span the whole membrane, making contact with the outside environment and the cytoplasm. They often require the expenditure of energy to help compounds move across the membrane Communication (via receptors) Recognition Cells, cytoplasm, and organelles: · Cytoplasm consists of a gelatinous solution and contains microtubules (which serve as a cell's cytoskeleton) and organelles (literally 'little organs') · Cells also contain a nucleus within which is found DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in the form of chromosomes plus nucleoli (within which ribosomes are formed) · Organelles include: Endoplasmic reticulum - 1. comes in 2 forms: smooth and rough; the surface of rough ER is coated with ribosomes; the surface of smooth ER is not 2. functions include: mechanical support, synthesis (especially proteins by rough ER), and transport Golgi complex - 1.consists of a series of flattened sacs (or cisternae) 2. functions include: synthesis (of substances likes phospholipids), packaging of materials for transport (in vesicles), and production of lysosomes Lysosomes - 1. membrane-enclosed spheres that contain powerful digestive enzymes 2. functions include destruction of damaged cells (which is why they are sometimes called 'suicide bags') & digestion of phagocytosed materials (such as bacteria) Mitochondria - 1. have a double-membrane: outer membrane 2. highly convoluted inner membrane